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Indian Wars
of the Connecticut Valley by Robert Magovern former President of the DFA e-mail: neighbor12@aol.com Dickinson Family Association Talk 2014 Reunion, Agawam MA June 21, 2014 As we begin our study of Nathaniel
Dickinson, his coming to New England and his move to Hadley, we must first
understand what brought our ancestor to New England in the first place.
Nathaniel was very much a Puritan as were most of the founders of Hadley. I
have enjoyed studying the development of Puritanism over the years and what
made our ancestors think the way they did. We heard last year about
where Nathaniel came from and what his family was about but not what made him
the way he was. What made a Puritan? To
answer that question could take all afternoon but I promise I will be as
brief as possible. The protestant movement in England got its big push with
Henry the VIII when he wanted to split from the Roman Church. After Henry VIII and his
son’s death Mary came to the throne and tried to turn the clock back. She
wanted to reinstitute The Roman Church and the Pope’s control. One of the first martyrs of
her reign was John Rodgers who helped translate the Bible into English. For
his efforts it earned him a place at the stake where he was burned to death.
He accepted his fate and when told it was his time his only comment was “I
need not tie my points.” Tying your points meant tighten your sleeves to your
jacket. Many of the leaders of the
Protestant movement, rather than taking a chance that they would be next,
fled to Europe. The effect that this had was that they studied with Calvin
and other European theologians. Many of them when they returned to England
were staunch Calvinist and dissenters from established religious thought. The Calvinists were strict followers of the Bible
and thought that the word of God as revealed through the scriptures was what
mattered, not what church leaders were telling you. This was the birth of a
religious revolution that would forever change England. Perry Miller put it “The Puritan reformation was a
concentrated deformation within the original reformation. Sincere in the
belief that no mortal on earth could assist in salvation of another except
that it is by the faith of the individual. The Puritans used the Bible as the
sole reference for the church ritual. In this holy book they saw no mention
of Gaudy vestments or ostentatious kneeling and genuflecting.” English Puritanism was one
of the most rigorous products of the reformation. Those who came to New
England were the most logical and consistent of the Puritans. In America removed from mollifying
influences of an old complex society beginning anew where all things could be
ordered not as they might like them but as God demanded and Perception required,
their rigor was proportionally intensified. They went as far as they could go
in removing everything between god and man, the church, the priest, the
magical sacraments, the saints and the virgin. This attitude developed
from the 16th century into the 17th century until
finally it reached a point where those who didn’t share the same ideas
started reacting strongly. Most real power in the land was controlled by
those who didn’t share their views. On the top of the list unfortunately was
the King. Because so many of the
early puritans were prominent not only in society but also a great many were
a large part of the university structure and many served in the
Parliament. When the Puritan migration
happened it brought with it one of the best groups of
highly educated individuals to ever settle in New England. Bishop Laud finally tried to put a stop to the
growth of the Puritan movement. He
put in place harassments toward the leader of Puritans. They instituted the
Star Chamber that was ruled by its own laws and not the English Common law.
The Star Chamber led to the imprisonment and torture of many leading puritans
including those who were members of parliament. Couple Bishop Laud’s harassment,
imprisonment and torture with the King’s new taxes on many of the wealthy
puritans and the loss of religious freedom. Puritans started looking for a
way out. This brought about the
great Puritan Migration and the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay
Company led by John Winthrop.
Nathaniel Dickinson was part of this movement when he migrated first
to Watertown then to Hartford and Wethersfield. One of the early Puritans that wanted to come to New
England was Oliver Cromwell. He was
prevented from leaving and taken off a ship set to leave for New England. Can
you imagine what English history would have been like if Cromwell had come to
New England? When Nathaniel settled in
Wethersfield he became a leader of the colony. Not only the political part
but also in the church. The church was the heart of the town. Nathaniel was town clerk in 1640 a
selectman in 1646 and a representative to the house of Magistrates at
Hartford until 1656.He helped survey Wethersfield Broad Street and lay out
the home lots. Because of all his activities in town we know he was a
very well educated man. Now you ask, what did all this history of Puritanism have to do with
our ancestors? When their Puritan
philosophy was being threatened by Rev Stone, the new minister in the
Hartford church after the death of Rev Hooker, it brought about a schism
within the Harford Church. Many of the members of the Harford church left and
joined the Wethersfield church. The attitudes however didn’t stop. The
minister of the Wethersfield Church was Rev Russell. He was a strict Puritan
as were the other members who disagreed with Rev Stone. The disagreement
became strong enough that the Wethersfield town’s people siding with Hartford
declared the pulpit vacant in Wethersfield. In other words they fired their
minister. The solution to the problem
was for the minority of the church to find a new land to set their laws on
what they believed to be the true word of God as they saw it when they first
settled Wethersfield. This group included those disaffected members of not
only Wethersfield but also Hartford and Windsor. One of the withdrawers was
John Webster who was the Governor of Connecticut at the time. They applied to Boston to give them
permission to found a new settlement north of Northampton. This became Hadley
and Hatfield Their new town was based on
God’s Covenant. Again Perry Miller sums up what were the bases for a lot of
these communities. “Bible
commonwealths of New England the origins of New England were based on the
fundamental logic of the word of God shown through the Bible.” If any one
word could best sum up what their driving belief was. It was logic. Logic as it was shown through
the word of God. Nathaniel Dickinson was a true believer. A result of this
philosophy can be seen today through the Dickinson Family. In order to understand the word
of God you had to be able to read it. Is
it any wonder than that as Hadley was being founded one of the first things
Nathaniel did was to help found Hopkins Academy which is still graduating some of the top ranking
students in the state of Massachusetts? It is also a credit to our ancestor’s
philosophy that education has become a hallmark of our family. Many of the
early Dickinsons were graduates of Harvard and
Yale. Jonathan Dickinson a Yale graduate went on to found Princeton and many
other family members founded other schools and universities included
Deerfield academy, Williams College, Amherst College even one of the first
great Presidents of Westfield State University, where I served on the Board of trustees, was a Dickinson. In summing up what brought
Nathaniel and his family to Hadley was his Puritan belief. The
result of the Puritan religion in America is not to Black Clocked
conservatives but a group of individuals who believed in logic, hard work and
education. Their legacy should not just be the puritan hat you see on
turnpike signs but the many great institutions of higher education you see
throughout New England. Now for the study of what
it was like to live in 17th century New England as it relates to
Native American conflicts. I tried to
outline for you what the philosophy of our early ancestor was like now for
their way of life. It was not an easy way of
life. As the old saying goes trust the
lord but keep the powder dry. Even
though the early settlers were invited by the native population to come to
the Ct River valley to settle, there was constant fear of other not so
friendly Indian attacks. Small raiding parties were always a
treat but events got out of hand however with the attack on John Oldham and
his crew. Oldham was not only one of the founders of Wethersfield but also
one of the leading citizens in all of New England. He was also a large trader
so he was well known in other parts of the New England. Punishment for this
transgression was demanded. This all happened about the time Springfield was
being founded, on July 20, 1636.
The destruction of the Pequot tribe by the English and their
Indian allies was so great that there was relative peace in the valley
between the English and the native population for over 40 years. When Nathaniel and his family moved to Hadley and Hatfield in
1659 they were watchful for Indian conflicts. The Pynchon families, William
and his son John, were on good terms with the Indians and were called upon
several times to try and bring peace between various local tribes that were
at war with each other. They earned the trust of the local tribes as they
were the only community not to participate in the Pequot war. Hatfield was just a few miles south of major Indian tribal
headquarters. The Mohawks from the Albany area were raiding the valley
Indians. They needed to add to their tribe’s population because of disease
and war. They would take captives to repopulate those that had died. By the
1660s things were getting hostile between the native tribes. In 1662 the Sokoki tribe attacked a
Mohawk village and in 1663 more Mohawks were killed by the Sokoki tribe. The Sokoki
village was just north of the Pocumtucks on the
Connecticut River. John Pynchon was called in to try and keep peace. He wrote
a letter from the Agawam and Pocumtuck Indians plus
many other local tribes to the Mohawks pleading no knowledge of the raids by
the Sokokis and pleading for peace and to not be
included in any retribution. In December of 1663 the Mohawks took retribution and destroyed
the Sokoki tribe and their village killing most of
the inhabitants. The village was only 20 miles north of Pocumtucks. With all of this fighting going on, the French who were trading
partners with many of the affected tribes were becoming concerned. The
Mohawks sent a peace party to Canada but it was ambushed by Algonquians and Pocumtucks. Now the Dutch and the English as well as the
French were all concerned that things were getting way out of hand and the
fur trade was starting to suffer. A Meeting was held at Pocumtuck in May
of 1664 with the Dutch, Mohawks, Springfield, Northampton and Pocumtuck delegations all present to work things out and
try to form a peace. It was agreed that
the Pocumtucks would work out a peace treaty with
the Mohawks. The Mohawks would send a delegation to the Pocumtucks. On June 23 the Mohawks sent a peace party under the leadership
of a much beloved Prince of their nation Saheda
with 15 men all bearing gift for the Pocumtucks.
The group left their fort near Fort Orange and a few days later arrived at
the Pocumtucks’ fort. Once they entered the fort they never left.
It is not known what happened but the entire party was killed along with
their beloved prince. When word reached Fort Orange about this treachery there was
much grief. The Mohawks, needless to say, were on the verge of marching on to
the Pocumtucks’ village. There were many changes
taking place however, The English had just taken over New Amsterdam and with
it Fort Orange. The dynamics of diplomacy were now in play. The English like
the Dutch had been trading with the Iroquois and the Mohawks and wanted to
keep peace with them at all cost. The French were always a threat. The
English wanted to keep the balance of power in their favor. To keep peace they promised not to interfere with internal
Indian conflict. This sealed the fate of the Pocumtucks.
The Mohawks launched a war party. They traveled over the Mohawk trail 50
miles to the Pocumtuck fort. They attacked and
suffered many losses. The Pocumtucks, thinking they
were weak, attacked them thinking they were retreating. This was a trap and
the Mohawks closed in around the Pocumtucks
destroying all the braves. They then went on to their village killing those
left taking captives and destroying all crops and the village. This attack lead to the destruction of the Pocumtucks
as the Mystic attack in 1637 led to the destructions of the Pequots. The Pocumtucks’ lands
were now open for colonization by the English. A group from Dedham saw the empty land in 1665 and petitioned
the general court for permission to settle on it. Terms were worked out. The
land was purchased from a Pocumtuck Indian who most
likely didn’t own it and the resettlement of it was started. The village was
called Pocumtuck. For the next 10 years Nathaniel and his family thrived in their
new settlements. Hatfield was a few miles south of Pocumtuck
or Deerfield as it became known. For 40 years other than small bands of
Indians the English were at relative peace with the local tribes. There were
Indian forts and several villages within close proximity to the English
settlement. This would include the Agawam Indians who built a fort on what in
now Longhill Street in Springfield. Things were about to change.
Metacom or Phillip as he would become known as the
chief of the Wampanoags
was about to go on the war path. The war broke quickly in the valley. One of the Indian forts was a short distance from Hatfield. As
the raids became more frequent with the death of many settlers’ it was deemed
prudent to confiscate the fire arms from possibly unfriendly natives. The
fort near Hatfield was sent word to turn in their weapons. Rather than give
up their firearms the majority of the men decided to abandon the village. Capt. Lathrop with a 100 men decided to locate the
runaways and retrieves the weapons. This did not go well. As they were
following their trail they found their chief. He was killed as he wanted
peace with the English. They came upon the Indians at Hopewell swamp. A fierce battle ensued and Lathrop had to
retreat. Azariah Dickinson born in 1648 at Wethersfield
was the first Son of Nathaniel to be killed. Azariah
became one of the first Ct Valley casualties of King Phillips War. In Sep 1675 the Wampanoags
and local Indians attacked Northfield. A soldier was killed but the
inhabitants were able to take cover in two fortified houses. On the 4th of September Capt Beers lead a relief column to bring the inhabitants of
Northfield to safety. His troop of 36 men was attached from ambush. Capt Beers and over half of his forces
were killed. Many were killed in a despicable manner. The method of killing
that the Indians used was to put as much fear as possible into those who
found the bodies of those killed and mutilated. On September 5 1675 the commander of the Connecticut
regiment Major Trent lead 100
soldiers to the relief of Northfield. Once he arrived he was able to secure
the town but abandoned it and retreated with the settlers of Northfield to
Hadley. On the trail back to Hadley
they came across the mutilated bodies of Capt.
Beers. Many of the killed soldiers had their heads put on poles stuck in
the ground. This sent the message the Indians wanted. They were to be feared. Joseph Dickinson was killed with Capt Beers. He was the second son of Nathaniel to be
killed. Joseph was baptized in Billingborough in
1630. On Sep 12 Indians attacked Pawcatuck and drove
the defenders into fortified homes. Again outnumbered they had to stay
protected while the Indians burned Pocumtuck to the
ground. When the natives left they took with them much beef and pork. The
decisions were made to abandon the town and send the women and children to
Hatfield and Hadley. They could only take with them what they could carry.
The newly harvested grain and other winter supplies however of Pocumtuck had to be saved in order to feed all the
increasing refuges in Hadley and Hatfield. The military and civilian population of Hadley was growing every
day. Captain Lathrop and 80 men had gone back to Deerfield to bring the
winter supplies to Hadley. On September 19, 1675 he left with
his 80 men and about 20 teamsters and wagons left Deerfield to return to
Hadley. With a troop of soldiers and teamsters that large Capt. Lathrop
didn’t see the need to send out a scouting party to check the way. No group
of natives would dare to attach them. You
have to stop and think what the terrain was like in early New England. The
woods were dense but clear. Indians would set fires and let them burn all the
way to the sea coast. The results was a natural
forest of large trees with little undergrowth because the fast hot fire would
burn most of the underbrush. The forest that was left was like a park. Swamps were a different
story. The water and marsh land in the swamp kept the fires from burning the
underbrush and left the vines growing up into the trees. As the convoy of
wagons emerged from the forest into the swampy area the convoy came to a stop.
The soldiers took a break as the wagons had to cross the brook one by one.
Many of the soldiers put their guns aside so they could pick grapes growing
on the vines up into the trees and along the bank of the brook. At
a given signal, hundreds of warriors, who were lying concealed all around
this spot, opened fire on the convoy. Chaos followed; bullets and arrows flew
from every direction. Captain Lathrop immediately fell. Of the 80 soldiers,
only 7 or 8 escaped; none of the Deerfield men who were driving the carts
survived. Captain Moseley and a troop of 60 soldiers who were in the area heard the sounds of
the ambush and hurried to the scene. For approximately 6 hours, a battle was
fought with neither side gaining the upper hand. Each soldier fought in the
Amerindian style: conceal yourself, select a target and shoot. Finally a
troop of 100 Connecticut soldiers with a band of Mohegan and Pequot arrived.
Realizing they could not win now, the warriors disappeared into the forest.
The surviving soldiers straggled back to Deerfield for the night. They
returned the next day to bury the dead in a mass grave. The sluggish little
brook was re-named Bloody Brook. Deerfield was abandoned shortly afterward
and later the village was destroyed by King Philip's warriors. To date no war fought by
this country has come anywhere near the destruction done during King Philips
War. In terms of loss of life and property in comparison to equivalent
measures it was without question the most costly ever fought. You have no idea the effect
this had on the rest of not only New England but back in England itself. To
have lost the number of soldiers in one battle was like us losing a regiment
in Afghanistan. The fear up and down the Valley was total. Even with all the
Indian destruction Pynchon was sure that the Agawam Indians were still
friendly. Their fort was right in Springfield and they had been friends for
40 years. Pynchon who was the overall commander of all the troops in the
Valley was so sure of the nonviolence of the Agawam Indians that he moved all
his fighting men north to Hadley. All the northern towns were wiped out and
the fear was that Hadley, Hatfield or Northampton would be next. The Indian strategy was not
haphazard. They knew what they were doing. They used their braves wisely. The
English didn’t have enough troops to garrison every town so they anticipated
what they would do. When Pynchon moved his troops to the north, Phillip’s
braves knew what to do. They sent several hundred warriors into the fort in Springfield.
Their plan would have been
a complete disaster for Springfield if not for an Indian by the name of
Toto. John Pynchon, although believing
his Indians would not cause problems, was not going to take chances. He took hostages
from the Agawam Indians and sent them to Hartford. The Agawam tribe would not
take part in the raid unless the hostages were freed. King Philip’s men told Toto
of their plan on the way to Hartford to free the hostages. Because he was so
nervous, under questioning he told the people he was living with about the
plan. Word was sent to Springfield and Hartford about the upcoming attack. When word reached
Springfield, the residents went to Pynchon’s home which was called the Fort
to await the attack. In the morning with no attack, some of the settlers
returned to their homes. Lt Cooper of Agawam who had
traded with the Indians for many years was one of those who could not believe
that his friends of 40 years would attack them. Along with Thomas Miller they
rode out to see what was happening at the Fort. As he approached the Fort he found out to
his regret. The Indians fired on them, killing Thomas Miller and wounding Lt
Cooper. He managed to make it back to the first house in the south end of
town and fell off his horse and died. As the war hoops rang
through the town the settlers all raced back to Pynchon’s barricaded house.
Philip’s men had free reign of the town and burned whatever they could. It
amounted to almost total destruction of Springfield: 30 homes, 30 barns, the
mills and store houses. The Connecticut troops were in Westfield protecting
them from attack when the word reached them. They were the first to try to
relieve Springfield but couldn’t cross the river because of the Indians on
the banks on the east side. Pynchon received word of
the attack in Hadley and marched his troop back. You can imagine what must
have been going through the minds of the returning troops when they saw the
smoke bellowing above Springfield. Too many of these men had seen the
atrocities of this war not to be fearful of what they might find. When the braves saw
Pynchon’s returning troops, they fled the area. They took with them the
entire population of the Agawam Indians living in their fort. This was the
last of the local tribes. After this battle, whatever was left of the Agawam
Indians was assimilated into other tribes. John Pynchon was a great
man. He lost more than anyone else in Springfield or the Valley yet he never
gave up. The following is a letter written by him at the time. John Pynchon’s letter to
the Governor: “Our people
are under great discouragement talk of disserting the place…. If it be
deserted how woefully do we yield to and encourage our insolent enemy. And
how doth it make way for giving up of all the towns above. If it be held it
must be by strength and many soldiers, and how to have provisions, I mean
bread. For want of a mill, is difficult. The soldiers here already complain
on that account, although we have flesh enough and this I mean very straight.
I mean no meal; will drive many of our inhabitants away. Especially those
that have no corn, and many of them no houses…. which fills and throngs up
every room of those that do have, together with the soldiers now increasing
our numbers so indeed it is very uncomfortable living here, and for my own
particular it would be better for me to go away, because here I have not
anything left. I mean neither Indian nor English corn, and
no means to keep one beast here, nor can I have release in this town because
so many are destitute.” This next section points
out that the Puritan faith and spirit which built the foundations for this
great country was very sound. “But I resolve to attend to what God calls
me to and to stick to it as long as I can. And though I have great
loss of my creature comforts yet to do what I can for defending the place, I
have hope God will make up in himself what is
wanting in the creature to me and to us all.” John’s Letter to his son: “I would not have you troubled at these sad losses which I have met
with. There is no reason for a child to be troubled when his father calls in
that which was lent him. It was the lord that lent it to me, and he that gave
it hath taken it away and blessed be the name of the Lord. He hath done very
for me, and I acknowledge his goodness, and desire the trust in him, and
submit to him forever, and do you, with me, acknowledge and justify him.” The fighting never seemed
to end. The families in Longmeadow never went out during that winter.
Although church was mandatory they stayed home for fear of an Indian attack.
Finally in March of 1676 with a guard of soldiers they decided to make their
first attempt ant attending church. The group made it as far as
the narrow strip of land between Springfield and Longmeadow when they were
attacked by Indians. Several were killed and others taken prisoner. John Leonard from Agawam was crossing the
river most likely to attend church as his daughter was John Keeps wife. He
was killed with an arrow to the head. John Leonard was not only the founder
of all the Leonards in Agawam but also my 10th
generation grandfather. The winter of 1675-1676 was a hard winter. Philip’s forces, although
victorious in many battles, still had not reached all of
its goal. Philip’s troops moved west to set up a winter camp. They had
hoped to get relief and provisions from the Mohawks but they were still pro
English and killed many of Philip’s forces. The spring of 1676 was
still a dangerous time for the settlement of the Connecticut River valley.
Even though the winter was a hard time the enemy still felt confident that
they could push the English out of the valley. They needed more provisions.
Part of their plan was to raid the settlement and take the provisions from
the English. This did not work as planned. Their attack strategy was not
working. The defenses of the English were much stronger than in the fall.
They were able to ward off the attacks on Northampton, Hatfield and Hadley.
There was loss of life and some livestock but not the booty that Philip needed
to keep his army well fed. The natives were confident
enough that they replanted some of their old field in Pocumtuck
and further north thinking they would be able to harvest in the fall. They
set up a village at the falls on the Ct River to catch the abundant shad and
salmon to restock their forces. They did all this without any fear that the
English would attack. In the fall the English had never launched offensive
attack against a large Indian troop. They were always responding to direct
attacks by the Indians. In May the Indians were
busy fishing and resupplying their food supplies. As I said, they were
confident that no English would attack them. That was a fool’s confidence. On
May 18, 1676 Capt
William Turner assembled 150 volunteers and regular solders for an attack on
their newly discovered village. They marched north that night and on May 19 in the early morning they
attacked their camp. The Indians were so sure that it wasn’t the English that
at first they started hollering that the Mohawks were attaching them. The attack was successful,
with the destruction of the village and its inhabitants. The village was not
only the center for food preservation but also military arsenal. The English
found and destroyed forged and iron supply for the repair of firearms and
manufacture of weapons. The battle was not over
however because a party of braves returned to their village and found it
under attack. On their retreat from the battle Capt
Turner was killed along with many of his soldiers. This was a very decisive
battle however. With the loss of the fish and other stores in the village,
most of the local tribes that had united with Philip’s Wampanoag’s
lost heart for this battle to drive the English out of the Valley. We all had several of our ancestral grandparents at
that battle. Some of mine were Samuel Bodurtha,
Nehemiah and his brother John Dickinson, Samuel Boltwood. And others. John Dickinson was killed at Turners falls, Samuel Boltwood and Benjamin Waite would be killed
during the Deerfield raids I, 1704. John
was the third son of Nathaniel to be killed. He was baptized 22 Aug 1624 at Billingborough. Nathaniel brought his
family to New England for his puritan beliefs and wanted to raise a family in
a new land with free thought and religion. I don’t think he realized he was
going to pay such a high price for this freedom. He lived to see the death of
his three sons at the hands of the Indians. The war was not over however. Philip lost his alliances and other than making
small raids he didn’t have the number of warriors to carry on the war he
wanted. His options were limited. He couldn’t take his forces west because
the Mohawks and Iroquois were at war with him as well. He couldn’t go north
for the same reason. He chose to go back to the Wampanoag base in
Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island. He was eventually betrayed
by one of his own and his head ended up on a pike above the walls of
Plymouth. The rest of his family and tribe were sold into slavery in the
Caribbean with other local tribes taking some captives for them. Philip’s end
was not just because of the English but the animosity of other Indian tribes
such as the Mohawks. The English would not have survived had it not been for
their Indian allies. After King Philip’s war
just about all local Indians were gone from the valley. Most were absorbed
into other tribes much like the Pequot were. The Indian battles going on in
the valley were mostly Indian against Indian. The Mohawks were still
traveling along their path dominating other Indians left in the region. As life was returning to
normal however on September 19, 1677
Indians struck Hatfield. It was a lightning strike done while most of the men
were in the meadows. 12 townspeople were killed, 17 taken captive. As they
were going north they hooked up with another raiding party that had attacked
Deerfield taking more captives. One of those taken captive was a veteran of
the Indian wars Sgt Plimpton. These Indians were not the
saintly type that you see portrayed in some movies. They were typical of
those that had been raiding and killing all through the war. For
entertainment one night they took Sgt Plimpton and
burned him alive and laughed as he danced around. This story was related by
one of the captives that were returned. Along with Sgt Plimpton, Obadiah Dickinson was also taken
prisoner. As the story goes when the Indians decided to burn Sgt Plimpton they thought it would be fun to have Obadiah
light him on fire. The account I read said that they put a stray vest on the Sgt and lit it. Obadiah was born in Wethersfield in April of 1641. Once he returned from Canada it is no wonder that
he decided to say good bye to the frontier and move back to Wethersfield.
Many here today are descended from Obadiah and came from the Connecticut
area. Now you know why your family is from Ct and not the upper Ct valley. There is so much more that
can be said about the Indian conflicts. The French and Indian wars come later
in the 18th century but I think that I have taken enough time this
afternoon. I hope some of you have
found this interesting as to how the Dickinson family has lived and died in
the Ct River Valley trying to make a future for their family. |
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